AKITU
The
CHALDEAN BABYLONIAN NEW YEAR FESTIVAL
5300 BC – Present
* Amer H. Fatuhi *
Celebrating Mesopotamian New Year on April 1 is dateable to the Babylonian
First Dynasty, early second millennium BC. This Amorite/Proto-Kaldi dynasty
is known for many great kings, including the legendary Hammurabi. In
that era, religious, economical, and social aspects of life were modified and
transformed from their earlier inherited patterns following the Babylonians'
own culture and fundamental values. However, before that era, celebrating Akitu
/Akiti in Sumerian marked one of the two major festivals, Akitu and Zagmuk
(religious calendar vs. agricultural cycle), observed by the mid-southerners
since the time of Eridu, 5300 BC. These two festivals were of particular
significance in Kish, Ur, and Uruk before the Sumerian
cultural influence around 2800 BC, particularly in central and southern
Mesopotamia throughout the Neo Sumerian Empire/Third Dynasty of Ur
(2112–2004 BC). Ur city and its God Nannar
played a significant role in those celebrations, especially during the 2nd
Mesopotamian Empire.
Ancient mid-centrists/southerners, whether Proto-Kaldi or
during the influential Sumerian culture, adopted the fall equinox, Zagmuk,
[1]
as the beginning of the New [ZAG] Year [MUK]. It coincided with harvesting
dates. They celebrated both spring and fall equinoxes with the same vigor and
importance. However, the beginning of the year/literal translation of the
Sumerian word Zagmuk was observed by the Proto-Kaldi. The festival's
ceremonies concentrated on praising the date palm's sanctity, fertility, and
the renewal of life "nature." Holy Matrimony, Hashadu, in the
Babylonian period, stood for the sacred marriage of Marduḫ, the national God and his wife, Ṣarpanitum. Every year, their wedding was reenacted by the
Babylonian king and the temple's high priestess, the divine lady, Entum.
During the Babylonian First Dynasty, Zagmuk merged
with Akitu and became part of the Akitu rituals. As stated by
Bidmead, Zagmuk and Akitu were initially derived from an idea of
agricultural-religious roots. "The ancient viewed each as the onset of a
six-month equinox year." Akitu festival of the first month, Nisanu,
lasted at least from the beginning to the fifth of Nisanu, as noted in a
series of tablets dating from Ibbi-Sin of Ur's reign. In contrast, the Zagmuk-Akitu
festival of the fall lasted for twelve days, starting September 15. On the
eighth day of the ceremony, Tammuz is liberated from the underworld,
which coincides with the fall/autumn solstice on September 23 and the
harvesting date. "The season of harvesting dates starts in mid-September
and ends in mid-October." [2]
The name Akitu is derived from a very ancient name,
a-ki-ti-še-gur10-ku5. It was the festival of sowing, harvesting, and
wool shearing. It was celebrated in antiquity from March/Addaru to
April/Nisannu, as well as from mid-September/Elulu to October/Tišritu.
To the public, it also meant the beginning of the New Year, especially in the pre-Sargonic
significant era, wherein Akitu was first celebrated as stated in the
tablet obtained from Girsu, in the city of Ur of the Chaldeans. After
the official festivities ended, it was celebrated in Nippur city. With the Proto-Kaldi/Amorites'
predominance, Akitu started to be recognized as the beginning of the
year, Reš šatti(m), in ancient Babylonia. Hence, Akitu
ended up being recognized as the official Babylonian New Year festival.
The Babylonians alone celebrated the eleventh day festival of Akitu
on April 1 of each year. While elsewhere in Mesopotamia, particularly the
northern Shubaru region/Assur, it was celebrated on subsequent
dates.
Traditionally, celebrating Akitu was mainly to acknowledge
the supremacy of God Marduḫ. However, when Babylon was plundered by the Assyrian king Sennacherib
in 689 BC, Babylon's magnificent celebrations came to an on-hold state in
Babylonia for a few decades. Sennacherib celebrated Akitu in his
capital, Nineveh, making Assur the
focal point of the festival, especially after stripping the idol of God Marduḫ from the
É-sagila,
Babylon. Sennacherib's sons turned against him
for the destruction he inflicted on Babylon; his other son Esarhaddon,
who succeeded his father, immediately had Babylon rebuilt and reinstated the
celebratory ceremonies of the supreme ancient Babylonian God Marduḫ. Cambyses II, son of the Persian king Cyrus II, was
the last king who took part in the rituals of taking the hand of the supreme God
in Babylon in 529 BC. In the Achaemenid king's reign, Xerxes I, Babylon
was destroyed, the Ziggurat and the É-sagila temple were severely demolished
in 482 BC. However, celebrating Akitu continued in the Babylonian region
up to the mid-second century BC, as indicated in the tablets excavated in
Uruk's city. People waited eagerly for April 1 since the Old Babylonian
period. The Proto-Kaldi flocked to Babylon, the land's official and legitimate
capital, where lavish celebrations took place. These vast gatherings and
pilgrims came from all over ancient Mesopotamia, including Ahwaz, and
the sea strip stretching up to Qatra/Qatar and the high Euphrates area
as far as Haran. Akitu was celebrated in two stages and two
locations—in the temple of God Marduḫ, Ésagila in Sumerian É-SAĞ-ÍL.LA, "the house that
raises its head," situated in the Babylonian Ziggurat, the loftiest part
of the É- temen-an-ki tower, foundation house
of heaven and earth. The other location was Beth Akitu temple, located
northbound outside the walls of the city. It is worth mentioning that since the
early first millennium BC, God Marduḫ was usually called Bel, or the Lord because his real name
was considered too holy to be pronounced. Similar to the Lord God epithet used
by the Old Testament's scribes for Elohim, the Hebrew God. Akitu
begins on April 1 and lasts for eleven days. Some scholars consider the twelfth
day that marks the day where the hosted gods and goddesses returned to their
cities as part of the official ceremony. On the first day, the Urigallu
priests would recite sad prayers in the É-sagila temple. In their sad
prayers, the priests would ask for Marduḫ's forgiveness. On the fourth day, a high priest, Sheshgallu,
recites the creation epic Enuma elish in praise of Marduḫ. As Sheshgallu performs this essential function in the Nisannu/April
ritual, he is customarily accompanied by musicians Kalu and Naru,
actresses—Mummeltu and actors - Mummelu, who played the events of
the epic.
After reciting the epic, the king heads to the temple of the God
of writing, Nabu, son of God Marduḫ, to receive the high priest's sacred scepter. Then he travels to Borsippa,
which is seventeen kilometers downstream from Babylon. He spends his night at
the temple of the city's patron god, Nabu,
revered by both Babylonians and Assyrians. Therein, Sheshgallu recites
the epic of creation at the house of the New Year/Beth Akitu. The
implication of the king's visit to God Nabu's temple is to help him release Marduḫ from captivity inside a mountain in the underworld, Kur,
land of the netherworld. On the fifth day, the king returns carrying Nabu's
statue, which he eventually leaves behind at the southwestern Urash gate. Then he lays down his crown,
scepter, and the sword by the gate of Ésagila temple. After a series
of ceremonies, he is returned his royal insignia after cleansing him and them
with the holy water. Returning the crown to the king means his power was
renewed by Marduḫ to be allowed to enter
the temple to complete the celebratory ceremonies. The remaining part of the
fifth day is dedicated to offerings and incantation rituals carried out by the Mashmashshu
priest. He slaughters a ram and sweeps the temple walls with its blood and then
throws its head in the river as a kind of scapegoat that casts out demonic
powers. The king performs another ritual in the afternoon of the fifth day. He
is accompanied by Sheshgallu as
well. That ritual mainly revolves around a wild white bull.
Meanwhile, the crowds would be fully excited, especially after Marduḫ's chariot passes in the streets without its driver, as a sign of
dreading chaos that might befall the land before Marduḫ sets the universe in order. On the seventh day, the statue of Marduḫ and the other gods' statue is cleansed and clothed in new
attires. Following that, Nabu visits
the warrior god Ninurta in his
temple. Together they join forces in a ceremonial play where Nabu and Ninurta's
statues defeat two symbolic golden figures from the netherworld. Then the
priests depart with Nabu and Ninurta's statues to É-sagila temple to join the Supreme
God's statue, Marduḫ. And during the next two days, barges arrive at Babylon, carrying
statues of gods from Ur, Sippar, Kutha, Kish,
Uruk, Nippur, Borsippa, and the other cities. Next, the barges
are placed on horse-drawn chariots.
On the eighth day, after the liberation of Marduḫ, the population's outbursts of rejoicing intensify. The statues
of gods are assembled in the Chamber of Destinies in the order of their ranks,
substantially to confer their combined strength on the restored God for the
conquest of hostile forces and give Marduḫ the right to determine the destinies. This ritual takes place to
renew fruitfulness and life for the coming year. This ritual is performed by
the king who enters the great hall, grasping the hand of the great Lord Marduḫ, as he places him in the main courtyard of É-sagila, where all gods grant Marduḫ absolute authority and recite his fifty compound names. After
that, the parliament representative announces the next year's policy, just like
the state of the union address. This policy always contains blessings,
fortunes, and successes. At a later time, the king goes in procession from É-sagila riding the chariot of Marduḫ glowing in gold and silver, followed by the other gods' chariots
while aromatic herbs burn with fragrance. They would head toward the river
along with singers and musicians playing flutes. The gods' adoring devotees
kneel in front of them. Finally, the procession would leave Babylon, heading
toward the temple of Beth Akitu. After a short tour alongside the
Euphrates, it reaches Beth Akitu, decorated with green foliage. The king
then carries the statue of the state of the union. He brings it inside Beth
Akitu, where ceremonial hymns are chanted, including the ones dedicated to Ishtar, goddess of sex and war, and the
songs devoted to God Ea, father of Marduḫ
and protector of Eridu. The last song is an alternating hymn in which
the gods are asked why they are not in their temples. They reply that they had
to be with Mardukh at that momentous
event.
More offering ceremonies are performed, and the sacred marriage, Hashadu,
enacted on the ninth and tenth days in a chamber called Gigunu/Gagum
at É-sagila. It is designated to
the high priestess. On day twelve, at É-sagila temple, once more
prayers and good wishes are recited for the New Year at the presence of all
gods that participated in the procession. Afterward, the celebrations are
concluded with a lavish public banquet for all Babylonians and the pilgrims
from other cities while singers recite hymns and play musical instruments.
The performers who
partake in these celebrations are Astalu, the musician, Huppu,
the dervish or performer of religious dances, Assinnu, the designated
boy, Qapistu, the characters' caster, Quluu, the back chanters, Kur
garru, the lamenter and one of the religious servants, Mubabbilu,
the funny jester, Mummelu and Mummeltu, the actor and actress, Mustapsu,
the wrestler, and Zammeru, the flutists and singer.
On that last day,
statues of the gods promising to protect Babylon, consolidate its rule, and
have leniency on its people, are returned to Marduḫ's temple. The first statue to depart Babylon is of God Nabu's, followed by the other gods'
statues. Similarly, priests return to their temples, and daily life resumes in
Babylon and the rest of the land.
Amer Hanna Fatuhi, Ph.D.
Visual Artist &
Historian
www.ChaldeanLegacy.com | www.NativeIraqis-Story.com
[1] Nabu, The Book of
Zagmuk, Vol. 2, March 21, 2016
[2]
Bidmead, Julye, The Akitu Festival: Religious
Continuity And Royal Legitimation In Mesopotamia, Gorgias Press, January 1st
2004, P. 119
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